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Special education has many names. It can also be called SPED, special ed, aided education, alternative provision, exceptional student education, or special day class ( SDC). It is the practice of Education students in a way that accommodates their individual differences, Disability, and special needs. (2026). 9780857021632, SAGE. ISBN 9780857021632 This involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help individuals with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and in their community. This may not be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education.
Special education aims to provide accommodated education for students with disabilities such as learning disabilities or difficulties (such as dyslexia), communication disorders, emotional and behavioral disorders, physical disabilities (such as osteogenesis imperfecta, down syndrome, and muscular dystrophy), developmental disabilities (such as autism spectrum disorder, and intellectual disabilities) and other disabilities. Students with disabilities are likely to benefit from additional educational services such as different approaches to teaching, the use of technology, a specifically adapted teaching area, a resource room, or a separate classroom altogether.
In the Western world, educators modify teaching methods, curriculum materials, and environments so that the maximum number of students are served in general education environments.National Council on Disability. (1994). Inclusionary education for students with special needs: Keeping the promise. Washington, D.C.: Author. (1997). 9781557662910, Brookes Publishing Company. ISBN 9781557662910 Integration can reduce and improve academic achievement for many students.
Whereas special education is designed specifically for students with learning disabilities, remedial education can be designed for any students, with or without special needs. The defining trait is simply that they have reached a point of unpreparedness, regardless of why. For example, if a person's education was disrupted, for example, by internal displacement during civil disorder or a war.
The opposite of special education is Curriculum, also known as mainstream education. General education is the standard curriculum presented without special teaching methods or supports. Sometimes special education classrooms and general special education classrooms mix. This is called an inclusive classroom.
The civil case Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 was a matter of racial segregation, but it is often used as a reference for when students with special needs are segregated from the general population.
The majority of states in America had programs implemented in public schools for students with special needs by 1930.
The Education of All Handicapped Children Act changed its name to Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, commonly called IDEA in 1975. President Gerald Ford implemented this act. Essentially, the act says, "Children ages 3 to 21 with disabilities must be given access to a 'free and appropriate public education'".
In the United States, Canada, and the UK, educational professionals use a student's Individualized Education Program (IEP). Another name for a student's Individualized Education Plan is a student's Individual Learning Plan (ILP).
"The IEP is meant to address each child's unique learning issues and include specific educational goals. It is a legally binding document in. The school must provide everything it promises in the IEP."
In the US, for children who are not yet three years old, an Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) contains information on the child's present level of development in all areas, outcomes for the child and family, and services the child and family will receive to help them achieve the outcomes.
In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is enforced. To ensure that this federal law is obeyed, the government requires every school system provide this type of education to each student in order to receive federal funding. This changed a little in 2004 when the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) decided to update the law. After the law was updated into the Disabilities Education Improvement Act, the ability to identify special needs children and give them the appropriate education environment was improved.
Students with all forms of special needs are assessed to determine their specific strengths and weaknesses. The earlier these students with special needs are assessed, the faster they get the accommodations that they need, and the better it is for their education. Placement, resources, and goals are determined on the basis of the student's needs. Accommodations and modifications to the regular program may include changes in the curriculum, supplementary aids or equipment, and the provision of specialized physical adaptations that allow students to participate in the educational environment as much as possible. Students may need this help to access subject matter, physically gain access to the school, or meet their emotional needs. For example, if the assessment determines that the student cannot write by hand because of a physical disability, then the school might provide a computer for typing assignments, or allow the student to answer questions verbally instead. If the school determines that the student is severely distracted by the normal activities in a large, busy classroom, then the student might be placed in a smaller classroom such as a separate classroom or resource room.
Parents of students with a learning disability must be aware of what type of disability their child has, so they can get access to accommodations such as speech therapy, occupational therapy, and adaptive physical education. For example, if a student takes an academic test and it indicates that the student struggles with reading comprehension, parents can request speech and language support or classroom accommodations, such as extra time to complete reading and writing tasks.
Tier 1: High-quality, universal instruction for all students.
Tier 2: Targeted interventions for students at risk of academic or behavioral challenges.
Tier 3: Intensive, individualized support, often overlapping with special education services.
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Special schools provide individualized education with the ability to address specific needs. Student to teacher ratios are kept low, often 6:1 or lower, depending upon the needs of the children. Special schools will also have other facilities for children with special needs, such as soft play areas, , or , all of which are necessary for treating students with certain conditions.
In recent times, places available in special schools are declining as more children with special needs are educated in mainstream schools. However, there will always be some children, whose learning needs cannot be appropriately met in a regular classroom setting and will require specialized education and resources to provide the level of support they require. An example of a disability that may require a student to attend a special school is intellectual disability. However, this practice is often frowned upon by school districts in the US in the light of the least restrictive environment as mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.Turnbull, Ron (2002). "Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today's Schools (3rd ed.) Merrill Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
An alternative is a special unit or special classroom, also called a self-contained classroom, which is a separate classroom dedicated solely to the education of students with special needs within a larger school that also provides general education. This classroom is typically staffed by a specially trained teacher, who provides specific, individualized instruction to individuals and small groups of students with special needs. Separate classrooms, because they are located in a general education school, may have students who remain in the separate classroom full-time, or students who are mainstreamed in certain general education classes. An alternative to the separate classroom full-time for a student would be a one-to-one aide in the general education setting. In the United States, a one-on-one aide for a student with a disability is called a paraprofessional. In the United States a part-time choice that is appropriate for some students is sometimes called a resource room. Another option would be attending a separate classroom for a specific subject such as social studies.
Seclusion is the practice of involuntarily locking a student in an isolated room, utility closet or office alone without the ability to leave until school staff allows. The use of a Padded cell is often misused as a form of punishment for disrespecting staff or leaving the classroom.
In the 19th century, people with disabilities and the inhumane conditions where they were supposedly housed and educated were addressed in the literature of Charles Dickens. Dickens characterized people with severe disabilities as having the same, if not more, compassion and insight in Bleak House and Little Dorrit. The history of special education: From isolation to integration. MA Winzer
Such attention to the downtrodden conditions of people with disabilities brought resulted in reforms in Europe including the re-evaluation of special schools. In the United States, reform came more slowly. Throughout the mid half of the 20th century, special schools, termed institutions, were not only accepted, but they were encouraged. Disabled students were housed with people with , and they were not educated much, if at all.
Deinstitutionalization proceeded in the US beginning in the 1970s following the exposes of the institutions. It has taken some time before the Education for All Handicapped Children's Act of 1974, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Individuals with Disabilities Educational Improvement Act (IDEIA) to come into fruition.Turnbull, H. R., Beegle, R. & Stowe, M.J. (2007). Public policy and developmental disabilities: A 35-year retrospective and a 5-year prospective on the core concepts in disability. In: S. Odom, R.H. Horner, M.E. Snell, & J. Blacher, Handbook on Developmental Disabilities, 15-34. London: Guilford Press. School integration was supported as early as the 1970s, and teacher preparation programs in higher education have carefully taught and instructed graduates on inclusion at the individual, classroom, school, and district levels for decades resulting in dual certification of "regular teachers".
With the Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, school districts in the United States began to slowly integrate students with moderate and severe special needs into regular school systems. This changed the form and function of special education services in many school districts and special schools subsequently saw a steady decrease in enrollment as districts weighed the cost per student. It also posed general funding dilemmas to certain local schools and districts, changed how schools viewed assessments, and formally introduced the concept of inclusion to many educators, students and parents.Jorgensen, C.M. (1998). Restructuring high school for all students: Taking inclusion to the next level. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing co.
All developed countries permit or require some degree of accommodation for students with special needs, and special provisions are usually made in examinations which take place at the end of formal schooling.
As an example, students who have poor impulse control, behavioral challenges, or are autistic may learn self-management techniques, be kept closely on a comfortingly predictable schedule, or be given extra cues to signal activities. (2026). 9780470230800, Jossey-Bass. ISBN 9780470230800
An educational field, termed severe disabilities, is taught throughout the US university sector in schools. Advanced instruction is based upon community-referenced instruction, and alignment with transition to adulthood and progressive community practices.
Rehabilitation counseling personnel are often association with supported employment services, and typically with "transition to adulthood"Rusch, F.R., DeStefano, L., Chadsey-Rusch, J., Phelps, L.A., & Szymanski, E. (1992). Transition from School to Adult Life: Models, Linkages and Policies. Sycamore, IL:Sycamore Press.Ferguson, D. & Ferguson, P. (1987/2011). The promise of adulthood. In: M. Snell & F. Brown, Instruction of Students with Severe Disabilities. Madrid: Pearson. in which multi-decade recommendations for better coordination between the school and the community service sectors have been made at the federal and university levels.
Autism is a disability that impairs the social interactions and communication skills of a person. People who are autistic tend to think and act differently from others. Many autistic children find themselves comfortable with a device in their hands. For students with autism, there are apps called "visual scene displays" that are most helpful for children who are having difficulty with verbal skills, according to Jules Csillag, a speech–language pathologist who focuses on special ed tech. Apps such as SceneSpeak and Speech with Milo help autistic children develop storytelling skills with text-to-speech voice and interactive storybooks. Using apps like these in a classroom can improve autistic student's verbal skills.
There are several controversies surrounding the diagnoses and causes of autism. It is now believed that there is no single cause of autism. Research seems to suggest that autism is normally the result of both genetic and environmental influences.
Some sports even have their own organizations. For example, in baseball, athletes can participate in the Miracle League or Little League Challenger Division. Another organization that athletes can participate in is the US Youth Soccer TOPSoccer or Just for Kicks.
Other sports which can be played or adapted include track and field, Wheelchair rugby, tennis, bowling, and skiing.
On the other hand, for students with less obvious disabilities, such as those who have borderline intellectual disability or specific learning difficulties (dyslexia, dyscalculia, etc.), two primary methods have been used for identifying them: the discrepancy model and the response to intervention model. The discrepancy model depends on the teacher noticing that the students' achievements are noticeably below what is expected, at which point the teacher may make the decision for the student to receive support from a special education specialist. Before doing so, the teacher must show documentation of low academic achievement. The response to intervention model advocates early intervention.
In the discrepancy model, a student receives special education services for a specific learning difficulty (SLD) if the student has at least normal intelligence but the student's academic achievement is below what is expected of a student with his or her IQ. Although the discrepancy model has dominated the school system for many years, there has been substantial criticism of this approach (e.g., Aaron, 1995, Flanagan and Mascolo, 2005) among other researchers. One reason for criticism is that diagnosing SLDs on the basis of the discrepancy between achievement and IQ does not predict the effectiveness of treatment. Low academic achievers who also have low IQ's appear to benefit from treatment just as much as low academic achievers who have normal or high intelligence. This is because, while specific diagnoses may not be discovered, certain discrepancies can be identified early on, thus giving students the opportunity to receive early intervention.
The alternative approach, response to intervention, identifies children who are having difficulties in school in their first or second year after starting school. They then receive additional assistance such as participating in a reading remediation program. The response of the children to this intervention then determines whether they are designated as having a learning disability or otherwise. Those few who still have trouble may then receive designation and further assistance. Sternberg (1999) has argued that early remediation can greatly reduce the number of children meeting diagnostic criteria for learning disabilities. He has also suggested that the focus on learning disabilities and the provision of accommodations in school fails to acknowledge that people have a range of strengths and weaknesses and places undue emphasis on academics by insisting that students should be supported in this area and not in music or sports.
By one estimate, 93 million children under age 14, or 5.1% of the world's children, were living with a 'moderate or severe disability' in 2004. According to the World Health Survey, in 14 of 15 low and middle income countries, disabled people of working age were about one-third less likely to have completed primary school. For example, in Bangladesh, 30% of people with disabilities had completed primary school, compared with 48% of those with no disabilities. The corresponding shares were 43% and 57% in Zambia; 56% and 72% in Paraguay.
It has been shown that children with a higher disability are far more likely to be denied a chance to go to school. In Bangladesh, Bhutan and Iraq, children with mental impairments were most likely to be denied this right. In Iraq, for instance, 10% of 6- to 9-year-olds with no risk of disability had never been to school in 2006, but 19% of those with a hearing impairment and 51% of those with a mental disability had never been to school. In Thailand, almost all 6- to 9-year-olds who had no disability had been to school in 2005–2006, and yet 34% of those with walking or moving impairments had never been to school.
Children with disabilities require access to services that can support them throughout their time in school. According to the United Nations Centre for Human Rights, about 2% of children with disabilities have access to these services. Those without access to these services are excluded from education and unable to attend school. Due to the need of certain services and facilities, the estimated cost of providing education for a disabled child is 2.3 times higher than a child without disabilities. Given the poverty levels in a variety of developing countries, the education of children with disabilities does not become a priority. (1995). 9780275946678, Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275946678 Children with an intellectual ability are even less likely to attend school than children with physical disabilities. In the Global South, 90% of children with some form of disability do not receive any form of structured education. While current initiatives toward inclusive education internationally have been implemented, such as the Education for All program, some countries in the Global South still challenge the lack of ability to provide children with disabilities access to education due to issues such as lack of resources and schools being overcrowded.
One large issue is limited resources enabling individuals with special needs to receive an education in the developing world. As a consequence, 98 percent of children with special needs in developing countries do not have access to education.UNESCO. (1995). Review of the present situation in special education. Webaccessed: http://www.unesco.org/pv_obj_cache/pv_obj_id_C133AD0AF05E62AC54C2DE8EE1C026DABFAF3000/filename/281_79.pdf Funding cuts can affect special education students who do not have access to proper equipment or education. The National Coalition for Personal Shortages did a survey, and nearly100% of the teachers said that they are not able to give the proper resources to disabled children. Teachers are getting fired due to budget cuts. There is a financial debate that covers the use and allotment of special education government funding. The three views on this topic are that too much money is already spent, not enough money is being spent, or that the money that is given is not spent properly. The argument for the first is that the amount of money spent on one special needs child is enough to cover a large group of general education students. Sometimes budget cuts even cause several students to lose resources for general programs in order to support one child with special needs. The evidence for special education not having enough money is the lack of teachers, burnt-out teachers and a limited variety of teaching tools for each student. The argument to spend the money differently states that there is a lot of money set aside, but that it is being wasted by spending too much time on paperwork, inefficient IEP meetings or spending money on things that do not actually benefit the child. (1998). 9780803966246, Corwin Press, Inc. ISBN 9780803966246
Whether it is useful and appropriate to attempt to educate the most severely disabled children, such as children who are in a persistent vegetative state, is debated. While many severely disabled children can learn simple tasks, such as pushing a buzzer when they want attention, some children may be incapable of learning. Some parents and advocates say that these children would be better served by substituting improved physical care for any academic program. In other cases, they question whether teaching such non-academic subjects, such as pushing a buzzer, is properly the job of the school system, rather than the health care system.
Parents of general education children sometimes fear that the special needs of a single "fully included" student will take critical levels of attention and energy away from the rest of the class and, thereby, impair the academic achievements of all students.
Linked to this, there is debate about the extent to which disabled students, whether in mainstream or special settings, should have a specific pedagogy, based on the scientific study of particular diagnostic categories, or whether general instructional techniques are relevant to all students including those with special needs.
Both modifications and accommodations are recommended but not required, depending on the student's individual needs.
Special schools are reserved for students with severe disabilities who cannot be accommodated in their local school. They do not use the same grading or marking systems as mainstream schools, but, instead, they assess students according to their individualized plans.
Special classes are similar, and may vary from the national curriculum as the teachers see fit. Tsukyu are resource rooms that students with milder difficulties use part-time for specialized instruction individually in small groups. These students spend the rest of the day in the mainstream classroom. Some students with special needs are fully included in the mainstream classroom, with accommodations or modifications as needed.
Depending on the local authority, state elementary schools may also hold a naka-yoshi (中よし, 'close friends') class group in addition to the six grades, where students who struggle to adapt to mainstream classrooms are gathered and given life skills as well as completing their studies at a more adaptable pace. This is different from tsukyu in that although all-school activities are regularly held together, the majority of time is spent as a class.
Training of disabled students, particularly at the upper-secondary level, emphasizes vocational education to enable students to be as independent as possible within society after completing their schooling. Vocational training varies considerably depending on the student's disability, options being limited for some. It is clear that the government is aware of the necessity of broadening the range of possibilities for these students. Advancement to higher education is also a goal of the government, and it struggles to have institutions of higher learning accept more disabled students.
Students with disabilities who want accommodations on national exams must provide appropriate documentation to prove that they are disabled. Accommodations, but not modifications (e.g., simpler questions) are normally approved if they are similar to the accommodations already being used in everyday schoolwork. The goal of this is to maintain the exam's integrity while not having students unfairly disadvantaged by factors that are unrelated to what is being tested. The accommodations are listed on the Primary School Leaving Exam.
With respect to standardized tests, special consideration procedures are in place in all states for students with disabilities. Students must provide documentation. Not all desired forms of accommodations are available. For example, students who cannot read, even if the inability to read is due to a disability, cannot have the exam read to them because the exam results should accurately show that the student is unable to read. Reports on matriculation exams do not mention whether the student received any accommodations in taking the test.
They may be exempted from some parts of school examinations, such as students with hearing impairments not taking listening comprehension tests. If the student receives modifications to the school-leaving exams, this is noted on the certificate of achievement. If they are not following the national core curriculum, then they are tested according to the goals of their individual educational program.
The different paths available for children with disabilities at schools in France are:
Outside of the school system, children may also attend different types of medico-social institutions run by private organizations or charities paid for by the healthcare system. These include:
One in every 21 German students attends a special school. Teachers at these schools are trained professionals who have specialized in special needs education while in university. Special schools often have a very favorable student-teacher ratio and facilities other schools do not have.
Some special needs children in Germany do not attend a special school, but they are educated in a mainstream school such as a Hauptschule or Gesamtschule (comprehensive school).
Students with special educational needs may be exempted from standardized tests or given modified tests.
Students whose disabilities have been certified may be exempted from some standardized tests or given alternative tests. Accommodations are responsive to students' needs. For example, students with visual impairments may take oral tests, and students with hearing impairments take written tests. Accommodations and modifications are noted on the certificate of achievement.
According to the 1993 Act on Public Education, students with special educational needs may be exempted from standardized tests or given modified tests. They have a right to extra time, a choice of formats for the tests (e.g., oral rather than written), and any equipment that they normally use during the school day.
As of 2006, disabled students received a significant bonus (eight points) on the university entrance examination, which has been criticized as unfair.
Since amendments in 2011–2012, the national policy framework has formally promoted inclusive education, aiming to integrate children with special needs into general schools. In 2021, a dedicated law on inclusive education strengthened these requirements, obliging educational institutions to ensure accessible environments, provide psychological-pedagogical support, and adapt learning materials and programs.
As of 2024, 86% of Kazakh schools have introduced inclusive conditions, such as resource rooms, support centers, and specialists including special-education teachers, social pedagogues, and psychologists. A nationwide network of special education organizations—such as special kindergartens and schools, rehabilitation centers, autism centers, and psychological-pedagogical support offices—serves more than 200,000 children.
Despite a comprehensive legal framework, implementation of inclusive education in Kazakhstan remains uneven. After ratifying the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2015, the Kazakh government pledged to ensure inclusive conditions in 70% of schools by 2019, but according to Human Rights Watch (HRW), progress has been limited. A 2019 HRW report noted that many children with disabilities still study in segregated institutions or boarding schools, especially in rural regions, while those receiving home-based instruction often get only a few hours of teaching per week, restricting later access to vocational or higher education. Even in cities with established special-education infrastructure, such as Almaty, the proportion of students with disabilities in general schools remains extremely low, with less than 1% of enrolled students identified as having special educational needs.
In 2023, over 162,000 children with special educational needs were enrolled in Kazakhstan, which constitutes 3% of the total child population.
A strong emphasis is placed on the specific needs and positive capabilities of the individual, rather than on limitations. Disabilities are normally documented by experts.
Spanish non-governmental organizations like ONCE have traditionally provided significant services to disabled students.
There are special schools () for students with low abilities receive a typical education. In 2012 and 2013, the media criticized how students with disabilities that are considered more mild, such as dyslexia, have been placed in special schools, saying that this may seriously hamper their chances on the labour market.
In order to get special education, a student is required to have certain documentation:
The education offered by the school must be appropriate to the student's individual needs. Schools are required to maximize the student's potential or to provide the best possible services.
According to the Department of Education, approximately 10 percent of all school-aged children currently receive some type of special education services.
As with most countries in the world, students who are poor, ethnic minorities or do not speak the dominant language fluently are disproportionately identified as needing special education services.
Poor people and refugees are more likely to have limited resources and to employ inexperienced teachers that do not cope well with student behavior problems "thereby increasing the number of students they referred to special education." Teacher efficacy, tolerance, gender, and years of experience and special education referrals.
Most students have an individual educational plan, but students may have a group plan in addition to, or instead of, an individual plan. Group plans are used when a group of students all have similar goals. Management of Inclusion. The SENCO Resource Centre, part 3.
In Scotland, the Additional Support Needs Act places an obligation on education authorities to meet the needs of all students in consultation with other agencies and parents. In Scotland, the term Special Educational Needs (SEN) and its variants are not official terminology although the very recent implementation of the Additional Support for Learning Act means that both SEN and ASN (Additional Support Needs) are used interchangeably in current common practice.
The history of special education in Colombia can be categorized into three time periods: the period of neglect, the period of diagnosis and planning, and the emergence of special education. The period of planning ran from the years 1978 to the year 1990. The Ministry of Colombia in 1995 implemented a national plan for the development of special education called Plan Nacional para el Desarrollo de la Educación Especial. The purpose of the plan were to create a national diagnosis of special education and to initiate programs for individuals with disabilities. In 1994, the Ministry of Education put the first law into action to introduce special classes in public schools that include disabled students, called Law 115. In 2011, Colombia entered into the Convention of Rights of Persons with Disabilities, an agreement among the United Nations Education Scientific and Culture Organization (UNESCO) to protect people living with disabilities.
The most recent development of special education in Colombia was Article 11 of Law 1618, which was passed in 2013. The law states that "the Ministry of Education will define the policy and regulate the scheme of education for persons with special educational needs, promoting educational access and quality under a system based on inclusion in the educational services". The Colombian government has also made financial strides forward in special education, investing over $12.3 million in 2015.
For major exams, Canadian schools commonly use accommodations, such as specially printed examinations for visually impaired students, when assessing the achievements of students with special needs. In other instances, disabled students may receive alternative assessments or modifications that simplify tests, or they may be exempted from the tests entirely.
The education offered by the school must be appropriate to the student's individual needs. Schools are not required to maximize the student's potential or to provide the best possible services. Unlike most of the developed world, American schools are also required to provide many medical services, such as speech therapy, if the student needs these services.
Educators working in special education must meet specific credentialing requirements, which vary by state. In California, for example, teachers pursue specialized certification pathways to address diverse student needs in inclusive and specialized settings.
According to the Department of Education, approximately 6 million children (roughly 10 percent of all school-aged children) currently receive some type of special education services. As with most countries in the world, students who are poor, ethnic minorities, or do not speak the dominant language fluently are disproportionately identified as needing special education services. Poor, black and Latino urban schools are more likely to have limited resources and to employ inexperienced teachers that do not cope well with student behavior problems "thereby increasing the number of students they referred to special education."Tejeda-Delgado, M. (2009). Teacher efficacy, tolerance, gender, and years of experience and special education referrals. International Journal of Special Education, 24(1), 112–119.
During the 1960s, in some part due to the civil rights movement, some researchers began to study the disparity of education amongst people with disabilities. The landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, which declared unconstitutional the "separate but equal" arrangements in public schools for students of different races, paved the way for PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills vs. Board of Education of District of Columbia, which challenged the segregation of students with special needs. Courts ruled that unnecessary and inappropriate segregation of disabled students was unconstitutional. Congress responded to these court rulings with the federal Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975 (since renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)). This law required schools to provide services to students previously denied access to an appropriate education.
In US government-run schools, the dominant model is inclusion. In the United States, three out of five students with academic learning challenges spend the overwhelming majority of their time in the regular classroom.Cortiella, C. (2009). The State of Learning Disabilities. New York, NY: National Center for Learning Disabilities.
(2026). 9780335214051, Open University Press. ISBN 9780335214051
Watered-down
Some special education classes such as a separate classroom or resource room have been criticized for a watered-down curriculum. This is because students are expected to simply memorize the facts rather than truly understand the information.
At-risk students
At-risk students with educational needs that are not associated with a disability are often placed in classes with disabled students. Critics assert that placing at-risk students in the same classes as disabled students may impede the educational progress of individuals with disabilities.
Seclusion and restraint practices
The use of seclusion and restraint practices is a highly controversial practice in the special education system involving the physical restraint of students or involuntarily locking students in padded cell.
National approaches
Africa
Nigeria
The Federal Ministry of Education constituted a committee to develop exclusively the first broad-based National Policy on Special Needs Education (SNE) in Nigeria. The constitution of the drafting committee with the mandate to formulate a national policy on special-needs education gave birth to the National Situation Analysis Report. This implies that the status has changed to a national policy on special education in 2015 (an expanded version), thereby widening its scope and activities.
South Africa
White papers in 1995 and 2001 discuss special education in the country, and local schools are given some independent authority.
Asia
China
China holds the largest system of education in the world and features a state run public school system under the order of the Ministry of Education.
Iran
For special needs children, the education bureau has a , and Behzisti helps operate some trainable rehabilitation and empowerment schools.
Japan
Japanese students with special needs are placed in one of four different school arrangements: , special classrooms with another school, resource rooms (which are called tsukyu), or regular classrooms. Some local areas such as Koto Ward in Tokyo are expanding these tsukyu (or, , tsubasa classrooms) to cover all junior high schools within the next few years.
Pakistan
After independence (1947), Pakistan faced some serious challenges, due to which no proper emphasis was given to special education and even education. Among other reasons, lack of both financial and physical resources was the major challenge in this context. The need and importance of special education was felt in different educational policies of Pakistan in different times. In its first report, the Commission on National Education (1959) highlighted the importance of special education. After that, the Education Policy (1972) and the National Policy and Implementation Programme (1979) gave some importance to this sector. The same was also reflected in different medium-term (five-year) plans. This was felt more seriously when the Directorate General of Special Education, Islamabad, formulated a draft National Policy for Special Education in 1986 and revised it in 1988 to bring it in-line with the emerging needs of the disabled population. After that, a special education policy was launched in 1999. The Government of Pakistan has launched a new National Policy for Persons with Disabilities in 2002, which is being implemented dynamically.
Singapore
Special education is regulated centrally by the Singapore Ministry of Education. Both special schools and integration into mainstream schools are options for students with special educational needs, but most students with disabilities are placed in special schools.
Australia
Australian Association of Special Education Inc (AASE)'s position is informed by the Disability Standards for Education 2005 which requires that students with disabilities are treated on the same basis as other students in regards to enrollment and participation in education.
Europe
Each country in Europe has its own special education support structures.On the system of special education in the former Soviet Union, see Barbara A. Anderson, Brian D. Silver, and Victoria A. Velkoff, "Education of the Handicapped in the USSR: Exploration of the Statistical Picture", Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 39, No. 3 (1987): 468-488. 31 European countries are covered by the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education.Country information: http://www.european-agency.org/country-information
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Schools must take students' special education needs into account when assessing their achievements. Students with disabilities are normally included in their neighborhood school, although they may be placed in special schools.
Denmark
In Denmark, 99% of students with specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia are educated alongside students without any learning challenges.
Finland
Schools adapt the national guidelines to the needs of individual students. Students with special educational needs are given an individualized plan.
France
According to the 11 February 2005 Law, all children have the right to be enrolled in their neighborhood school, although children may be placed in medico-social institutions if their personalized plan calls for it. Each student's personalized school plan describes teaching methods, psychological, medical, and paramedical services that the school will provide for the student.
Germany
Most students with disabilities in Germany attend a special school that serves only children with special needs. These include:
Greece
Greek students with special needs may attend either mainstream schools or special schools.
Hungary
Special education is regulated centrally.
Republic of Ireland
The National Council for Special Education (NCSE) supports students with physical and intellectual disabilities.
Kazakhstan
Special and inclusive education in Kazakhstan is regulated by the Law on Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan, which guarantees access to education for children with disabilities and other special educational needs. The law provides several pathways for learners, including special schools, mainstream schools with adapted curricula and support services, and home-based instruction. Since 2023, the Department of Special and Inclusive Education, established within the Ministry of Education of Kazakhstan, coordinates and oversees the implementation of inclusive and special education policies nationwide.
The Netherlands
As a general rule, students with special educational needs are integrated into their regular, mainstream schools with appropriate support, under the "Going to School Together" policy (Weer Samen Naar School). Four types of disability-specific special schools exist. The national policy is moving towards "suitable education" (passend onderwijs), based on the individual's strengths and weaknesses.
Norway
The National Support System for Special Needs Education (Statped) is managed by the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. The general objective for Statped is to give guidance and support to those in charge of the education in municipalities and county administrations to ensure that children, young people and adults with major and special educational needs are secured and well-advised with educational and developmental provisions. The institutions affiliated with Statped offer a broad spectrum of services. Statped consists of 13 resource centres owned by the state, and four units for special education, where Statped buys services. These centres offer special educational guidance and support for local authorities and county administrations.
Portugal
Disabled students have a "guaranteed right" to appropriate accommodations on assessments. Schools are generally considered autonomous.
Slovenia
On national tests, the National Examination Center normally grants most requests for accommodations that are supported by the local school's examination committee. Legislation opposes the use of modifications that would be unfair to non-disabled students.
Spain
Schools are required to provide services and resources to students with special educational needs so that they make progress and participate in school. If the local school is unable to provide appropriately for an individual student, then the student may be transferred to a special school.
Sweden
Local schools have significant autonomy, based on national guidelines. Schools are expected to help students meet the goals that are set for them.
Switzerland
Education is controlled by the 26 cantons, so special education programs vary from place to place. However, integration is typical. Students are assessed according to their individual learning goals.
Turkey
At a young age, students who have special needs in Turkey are provided special education from The Ministry of Education, who are responsible in giving them the education that they need.
All special-needs students receive an Individualized Education Program (IEP) that outlines how the school will meet the student's individual needs. The Özel Eğitim Kurumları Yönetmeliği (ÖEKY) requires that students with special needs are provided with a Free Appropriate Public Education in the Least Restrictive Environment that is appropriate to the student's needs. Government-run schools provide special education in varying degrees from the least restrictive settings, such as full inclusion, to the most restrictive settings, such as segregation in a special school.
United Kingdom
In England and Wales, the acronym SEN (for Special Educational Needs) denotes the condition of having special educational needs, the services which provide the support and the programmes and staff which implement the education. In England, SEN PPS refers to the Special Educational Needs Parent Partnership Service. SENAS is the special educational needs assessment service, which is part of the Local Authority. SENCO refers to a special educational needs coordinator, who usually works with schools and the children within schools who have special educational needs. The Special Educational Needs Parent Partnership Services help parents with the planning and delivery of their child's educational instructions. The Department for Education oversees special education in England.
Latin America
Before 1978, little action was taken to educate disabled children in Colombia. Children would be left home without much interaction with the outside world. In 1985, special education was researched across the country and education programs were created. After 1990, disabled people were given access to public school classes. Awareness and recognition of this group's educational rights led to an increase in advocacy for accessibility for disabled children. While there have been improvements, development of special education programs and special education policy is still slow.
Colombia
Statistics from the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) state that there are 2,624,898 disabled people who reside in Colombia, representing 6.3% of the country's population. According to research in 2010, 90% of disabled students in Colombia did not attend a mainstream school, and only 26% of them are able to attend school at all.Correa-Montoya, Lucas and Castro-Martínez, Marta Catalina. (2016). Disability and Social inclusion in Colombia. Saldarria- ga-Concha Foundation Alternative Report to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Saldarriaga-Concha Foun- dation Press. Bogotá D.C., Colombia. 160p.
North America
Canada
Education in Canada is the responsibility of the individual provinces and territories. As such, rules vary somewhat from place to place. However, inclusion is the dominant model.
United States
All special-needs students receive an Individualized Education Program (IEP) that outlines how the school will meet the student's individual needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that students with special needs be provided with a Free Appropriate Public Education in the Least Restrictive Environment that is appropriate to the student's needs. State school provide special education in varying degrees from the least restrictive settings, such as full inclusion, to the most restrictive settings, such as receiving special education services at home or hospital.
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